Data on Austronesian languages

Where are the Austronesian languages spoken?

These languages are spoken in a large part of the world. Geographically, the Austronesian family is the most widely extended language family in the world, along with the Indo-European family. The area in which they’re spoken includes a huge part of Oceania from Taiwan in the north, New-Zealand in the south, Hawaii north-east, Easter Island in the east, as well as a large part of the south-east Asian islands (especially the Philippines and Indonesia). Austronesian languages are also found in Papua New Guinea and Madagascar.

Austronesian language map on the Laval university website (in French)

Total number of speakers (estimates)

A little under 300 million.

Classification

The Austronesian language family includes between 1,000 and 1,200 languages, which represents around one fifth of the languages spoken in the world. 20% of the languages in the world are spoken by less than 4,5% of the population… It is the second family in terms of number of languages, right behind the Niger-Congo family (Africa).

Taiwan is generally considered as the cradle of the Austronesian language family. Thus the Formosan branch is regarded as the family’s original branch. There on, the languages are likely to have spread out in successive surges through the south-east and Pacific islands…

I. The Formosan languages

The classification of Taiwan’s languages is very controversial. In absence of consensus, the list of the Formosan languages presented below only includes the groupings/clusters that stand undisputed. Anticlockwise from north-west:

1. Saisiat

2. Pazeh, Kulon

3. Atayalic: Atayal and its dialects, Seediq and its dialects

4. Thao (nearly extinct)

5. Kavalanic: Kavalan, Ketagalan (extinct), Basay (extinct)

6. Taokas (extinct)

7. Favorlang/Babuza, Papora (extinct)

8. Hoanya (extinct)

9. Siraya and its dialects (extinct)

10. Paiwan

11. Puyuma

12. Amis and its dialects

13. Bunun and its dialects

14. Tsou

15. Southern Tsouic: Kanakanabu, Saaroa

16. Rukai and its dialects

II. The Malayo-Polynesian languages:

Download the Malayo-Polynesian language tree (English, pdf 2880 ko)

Download the complete Oceanic language tree (English, pdf 2880 ko)

It is extremely difficult to present a detailed classification of a family as vast and complex as the Austronesian language family. For the time being, the classification we present below has been simplified for display purposes. We are aware this classification is not fully satisfactory as such. However it is only displayed temporarily, until we’re able to account for more scientific and detailed material. Work in progress.

Sulu-Philippines:

Sama-Bajaw:

Abaknon, Mapun, Bajau, Inner Sulu Sama (or Samal, or Balangingi), Western Sulu Sama (or Pangutaran), Yaman.

Languages of the Philippines:

Bintauna, Bolango, Buol, Gorontalo, Kaidipang, Lolak, Suwawa, Mongondow, Ponosakan.

Philippines Proper:

Itbayaten, Itbayat, Babuyan, Ivasay-Isamorong, Yami, Ilmorod, Iraralay, Pampangan(or kapampangan), Sinauna, Botolan, Tinà, Abellen, Ambala, Bataan (or Mariveleño), Mag-Anchi, Mag-Indi, Bolinao, Arta, Ilocano, Dumagat, Dicamay Agta, Dupaninan Agta, Kasiguranin, Paranan, Isnag, Atta, Ibanag, Itawit, Yogad, Cagayan Agta, Gaddang, Isinai, Itneg, Kalinga, Ifugao, Balangao, Bontoc, Kankanaey, Ilongot, Ibaloi, Iwak, Kallahan, Karao, Pangasinan, Alangan, Iraya, Tadyawan, Tagalog philippin standard, Tagalog dialect cluster, Isarog Agta, Mt. Iraya Agta, Central Bicolano, South Catanduan Bicolano, Albay Bicolano, Iriga Bicolano, Pandan Bikol, Davawenyo, Kamayo, Kalagan, Mandaya, Karaga, Bantoanon, Cebuano, Ati, Capiznon, Hiligaynon, Masbatenyo, Porohanon, Romblomanon, Butuanon, Tausug, Surigaonon, Inakeanon, Malaynon, Kinaray-a, Cuyonon, Ratagnon, Inonhan, Caluyanun, Ata, Ayta, Karolanos, Magahat, Sulod, Batak, Molbog, Palawano, Tagbanwa, Agutaynen, Calamian Tagbanwa, Buhid, Tawbuid, Hanuno’o, Maguindanao, Maranao, Blaan, Tboli, Giangan (or Bagobo), Tiruray, Subanun, Agusan, Dibabawon, Rajah Kabunsuwan, Ata-Tigwa, Obo, Ilianen, Western Bukidnon, Binukid, Higaonon, Kagayanen, Cinamiguin, Cotabato, Sarangani, Tagabawa.

Minahasan:

Tombulu, Tondano, Tonsea, Tontemboan, Tonsawang.

Indo-Melanesian:

Bornean:

Sabahan:

Bisaya, Bonggi, Tatana, Central Dusun, Labuk-Kinabatangan Kadazan, Gana, Coastal Kadazan, River Kadazan, Klias, Kimaragang, Kota, Marudu Talantang, Kuijau, Lotud, Papar, Rungus, Tobilung, Dumpas, Greater Kinabatangan, Lobu, Abai Sungai, Tombonuo, Yacan, Ida’an, Keningau Murut, Okolod, Paluan, Selungai Murut, Tagal Murut, Timugon Murut, Bookan, Bolongan, Kalabakan, Sembakung Murut, Serudung Murut, Tidong.

Greater Barito:

Bakati’, Rara (or Luru, or Lara), Sara, Biatah, Tringgus-Sembaan, Bidayuh, Bukar-Sadong, Jangkang, Kembayan (or Ahe), Ribun, Semandang, Benyadu’ (or Balantian), Sanggau, Kohin, Ot Danum, Siang, Bakumpai, Ngaju, Dusun Deyah, Dusun Malang, Dusun Witu, Ma’anyan, Paku, Bushi, Antankarana Malagasy, Bara Malagasy, Masikoro Malagasy, Northern Betsimisaraka Malagasy, Plateau Malagasy, Sakalava Malagasy, Southern Betsimisaraka Malagasy, Tandroy-Mahafaly Malagasy, Tanosy Malagasy, Tsimihety Malagasy, Lawangan, Tawoyan, Ampanang, Tunjung, Bahau, Kayan Mahakam, Baram Kayan, Busang Kayan, Kayan, River Kayan, Mendalam Kayan, Rejang Kayan, Wahau Kayan, Modang, Segai (or Punan Kelai), Aoheng, Hovongan, Kereho, Punan Aput, Punan Merah, Punan Tubu, Bukat, Bukitan, Kajaman, Lahanan, Punan Batu, Sekapan, Sian, Ukit, Wahau Kenyah, Long Wat, Sebop, Uma’ Lasan, Uma’ Lung, Kenyah, Penan, Murik, Bukitan, Kajaman, Lahanan, Sekapan, Sian, Ukit, Melanau, Seru, Bintulu, Kelabit, Lengilu, Lun Bawang (or Lundayeh), Putoh, Sa’ban, Tring, Berawan, Belait, Kiput, Lelak, Narom, Tutong.

Rejang-Sajau:

Basap, Burusu, Punan Bah Biau, Punan Merap, Sajau Basap.

Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian:

Malayo-Sumbawan:

Moken, Moklen, Gayo, Rejang, Abung, Pesisir, Javanese, Banjarese, Badui, Sunda, Kangean, Madura, Banjar.

Malaysian:

Ambonese, Banda, Kupang, Manado, North Moluccan, Papua Malaysian, Betawi, Balinese, Cocos Islands, Larantuka, Makassar, Bangka, Banjar, Brunei, Col, Duano, Haji, Indonesian, Jakun, Kaur, Kerinci, Kubu, Loncong, Lubu, Malais standard, Bacanese, Berau, Bukit, Central Malaysian, Jambi, Kedah, Kota Bangun Kutai, Pattani, Sabah, Tenggarong Kutai, Dayak, Minangkabau, Musi, Negeri Sembilan, Orang Kanaq, Orang Seletar, Pekal, Temuan, Urak Lawoi’.

Ibanic:

Balau, Iban, Mualang, Remun, Seberuang, Sebuyau.

Aceh-Chamic:

Acehnese, Tsat, Cham, Chru, Roglai, Cacgia, Haroi, Jarai, Rade.

Balik-Sasak:

Sasak, Sumbawa, Balinese.

Sulawesi-Polynesian:

Buginese, Campalagian, Embaloh (or Mbaloh), Taman, Kalis, Bentong, Konjo, Makasarais, Selayar, Budong-Budong, Panasuan, Seko, Mamuju, Mandar, Malimpung, Duri, Enrekang, Maiwa, Aralle-Tabulahan, Dakka, Pannei, Bambam, Ulumanda’, Kalumpang, Mamasa, Tae’, Toraja-Sa’dan, Talondo’, Toala’.

Sangiric:

Sangil, Sangir, Bantik, Ratahan, Talaud.

Celebo-Polynesian:

Celebic:

Banggai, Balantak, Andio, Bobongko, Saluan, Baras, Kaili, Lindu, Moma, Sedoa, Topoiyo, Pamona (or Bare’e), Tombelala, Rampi, Sarudu, Uma, Bada, Behoa, Napu, Bahonsuai, Bungku, Mori, Bawah, Wawonii, Moronene, Kulisusu, Atas, Padoe, Tomadino, Kodeoha, Rahambuu, Tolaki, Waru, Boano, Totoli, Dondo, Lauje, Tomini, Balaesang, Dampelas, Pendau, Taje, Tajio, Bonerate, Tukang Besi (or Popalia), Kalao, Laiyolo, Kamaru, Wolio, Wotu, Kioko, Liabuku Muna, Pancana, Kaimbulawa, Busoa, Kumbewaha, Lasalimu, Cia-Cia.

Greater Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian:

Batak Alas-Kluet, Batak Dairi, Batak Karo, Batak Simalungun, BatakAngkola, Batak Mandailing, Batak Toba, Gayo, Enggano,  Mentawai.

Nias, Sikule, Simeulue, Chamorro, Palauan.

Bima, Sabu, Dhao, Kambera, Mamboru, Anakalangu, Wanukaka, Pondok, Baliledo, Wejewa, Lamboya, Kodi, Manggarai- Komodo, Riung, Ende-Lio, Ngad’a- So’a, Sika, Kedang, Lamaholot.

Core-CEMP:

Irarutu, West Damar, Teor, Kur, Selaru, Selawasan, Fordata, Kei, Yamdena, Kowiai, Arguni, Onin, Sekar ,Uruangnirin, Banda, Bati, Geser, Watubela, Manipa, Barakai, Batuley, Dobel, Karey, Koba, Kola, Kompane, Lola, Lorang, Manombai, Mariri, Tarangan, Ujir, Hoti, Benggoi, Huaulu, Salas, Liana-Seti, Manusela, Kayeli, Haruku, Kaibobo, Sepa, Teluti, Paulohi (or Solehua), Hitu, Laha, Tulehu, Amahai, Elpaputih, Nusa Laut, Latu, Saparua, Kamarian, Asilulu, Seit-Kaitetu, Boano, Larike-Wakasihu, Luhu, Wemale, Yalahatan, Hulung, Loun, Alune, Naka’ela, Horuru, Lisabata-Nuniali, Piru, Kadai, Taliabu, Mangole, Sula, Buru, Lisela, Moksela, Palumata, Ambelau, East Damar, Kisar, Romang, Aputai, Ili’uun, Perai, Talur, Tugun, Nila, Serua, North Babar, Dai, Dawera-Daweloor, South-east Babar, Central Masela, East Masela, West Masela, Serili, Emplawas, Imroing, Tela-Masbuar, Luang, Leti, Amarasi, Baikeno, Bilba, Dela-Oenale, Dengka, Helong, Lole, Ringgou, Termanu, Tii, Uab Meto, Galoli, Idaté, Lakalei, Mambae, Kemak, Tukudede, Habu, Kairui-Midiki, Waima’a, Nauete, Habun, Tetun, Gane, Taba(or Eastern Makian), Buli, Maba, Patani, Sawai, As, Biga, Gebe (or Minyaifuin), Kawe, Legenyem, Maden, Matbat, Ma’ya, Waigeo, Wauyai, Waropen, Ambai, Ansus, Busami, Marau, Munggui, Papuma, Pom, Roon, Serui-Laut, Wandamen, Woi, Kurudu, Wabo, Biak (or Numfor), Mor, Warembori, Yoke.

Oceanic languages:

Mussau, Tench, Yapese, Wuvulu, Aua, Seimat, Kaniet* (extinct), Bipi, Hermit, Levei-Tulu (or Khehe, or Drehet), Likum, Mondropolon, Nyindrou (or Lindrou), Sori-Harengan, Bohuai, Loniu, Mokerang, Pak-Tong, Andra-Hus, Leipon, Ponam, Ere, Kele, Kurti, Koro, Lele, Nali, Titan, Baluan-Pam, Lenkau, Lou, Nauna, Penchal.

Western Oceanic languages:

Sobei, Bonggo, Tarpia, Ormu, Tobati (or Yotofa), Kayapulau, Sera,

Sissano, Tumleo, Ulau-Suain, Ali (or Yakamul), Kaiep, Kairiru, Terebu, Bam (or Biem), Kis, Manam, Medebur, Sepa, Wogeo, Bugawac, Kela, Jabêm (or Yabem), Labu, Aribwatsa* (extinct), Yal (or Aribwaung), Duwet, Musom, Sirak (or Nafi), Wampar, Silisili, Maralango, Dangal, Mari, Sarasira, Sukurum, Wampur, Adzera, Hote, Kaiwa (or Iwal), Mangga Buang, Mapos Buang, Kapin, Piu, Vehes, Mumeng, Numbami, Gitua, Mutu, Tuam, Malai, Bariai, Kove, Lusi, Malalamai, Bilbil, Gedaged, Matukar, Takia, Dami (or Ham, or Marik), Bing (or Biliau), Mindiri, Wab, Roinji, Nenaya, Arop-Lokep (or Lukep), Barim (or Karnai), Malasanga-Singorakai, Sio, Tami, Mangap-Mula, Kilenge, Maleu, Amara, Lamogai, Mouk-Aria, Kaulong, Miu, Sengseng, Psohoh (or Bao), Arove (or Arawe), Aiklep, Akolet, Avau, Atui, Bebeli (or Kapore), Mangseng, Lote, Mamusi, Poeng (or Mengen), Kakona, Maeng (or Orford).

Papuan Tip:

Maisin, Gumawana, Boselewa (or Bosilewa), Bunama, Dobu, Duau, Sewa Bay, Bwaidoga(or Bwaidoka), Diodio, Iamalele (or Yamalele), Kalokalo (or Koluwawa), Molima, Anuki, Arifama-Miniafia, Ubir, Doga, Are (or Mukawa), Gapapaiwa, Boianaki, Minaheva (or Kukuya), Wedau, Taupota, Garuwahi, Tawala, Dawawa, Kakabai, Auhelawa, Tubetube, Wagawaga, Bohutu, Suau, Misima, Budibud, Kilivila, Muyuw, Nimoa, Sudest, Motu, Gabadi, Doura, ‘Ala’ala, Roro, Kuni, Mekeo, Balawaia, Taboro, Saroa, Maopa, Hula, Aroma, Ouma, Magori, Yoba, Bina.

Meso-Melanesian:

Vitu (or Muduapa), Bal (or Uneapa), Bola, Bulu, Meramera, Nakanai, Kara, Nalik, Tiang, Tigak, Tungag, Lihir, Notsi, Tabar, Barok, Lamusong, Madak, Tomoip, Tangga, Sursurunga, Konomala, Patpatar (or Pala), Tolai (or Raluana, or Tuna), Minigir (or Lungalunga), Label, Bilur, Kandas, Ramoaaina, Siar, Solos, Nehan, Halia, Petats, Taiof, Saposa, Hahon, Tinputz, Teop, Papapana, Piva, Banoni, Mono-Alu, Torau, Uruava* (extinct), Sisiqa (or Babatana, or Senga), Ririo, Vaghua, Varisi, Marovo, Vangunu, Duke, Ghanongga, Hoava, Lungga, Roviana, Simbo, Ughele, Kia (or Zabana), Kokota, Laghu, Zazao, Blablanga, Mainge (or Cheke Holo), Gao.

Central-eastern Oceanic languages:

Bugotu, Gela, Lango, Birao, West Guadalcanal (or Ghari), Malango, Talise, Longgu, ’Are’are, Oroha, Marau, Lau, North Malait, Kwai, Kwara’ae, Langalanga, Kwaio, Dori’o, Arosi, Bauro, Fagani, Kahua, Sa’a, Ulawa, Uki, Nembao, Asumboa, Tanimbili, Buma, Lovono, Tanema, Teanu.

South Oceanic languages:

Hiw, Toga, Lehali, Lehalurup, Mwotlap, Mota, Vera’a (or Vatrata), Lemerig, Mwesen ( or Mosina), Vurës (or Vureas)¸Nume, Koro, Wetamut, Lakona, Merlav, Nokuku, Piamatsina, Tasmate, Tolomako, Valpei, Vunapu, Akei, Wusi, Malmariv (or Tiale), Amblong, Aore, Araki, Fortsenal, Mafea, Tamabo (or Malo), Merei, Morouas, Narango, Navut, Roria, Tambotalo, Tangoa, Tutuba, Wailapa, Sakao, Butmas-Tur, Lorediakarkar, Polonombauk, Shark Bay, Marino, Central Maewo, Aoba (or Northeast Ambae), Nduindui, Raga, Malua Bay, Vovo, Aulua, Axamb, Burmbar, Mae, Malfaxal, Maskelynes, Mpotovoro, Port Sandwich, Rerep, South West Bay, Unua, Uripiv, Vao, Nãti, Labo, Nasarian, Dixon Reef, Letemboi, Repanbitip, Katbol, Larevat, Lingarak, Litzlitz, Maragus, Big Nambas, Vinmavis, Apma, Sowa, Seke, Sa, North Ambrym, Lonwolwol, Dakaka, Port Vato, Southeast Ambrym, Paamese, Bieria, Maii, Baki, Bierebo, Lamenu, Lewo, Namakir (or Namakura), Nakanamanga (or Nguna), South Efate, Ura, Utaha* (extinct), Sye (or Erromangan), Sorung* (extinct), Lenakel, White Sands, North Tanna, Southwest Tanna, Kwamera, Anejom, Group of Kanak languages (New-Caledonian): Nyelâyu, Nêlêmwa-Nixumwak, Kumak, Caaàc, Yuanga, Jawe, Nemi, Fwâi, Pijé, Pwapwâ, Pwaamèi, Voh-Koné, Cemuhî, Paicî, Arhö, Arhâ, Ajië, Orowe, Sichë, Nekú, Haméa-Tîrî, Xârâcùù, Xârâgurè, Drubea, Numèè-Kwényïï, Iaai, Drehu, Nengone.

Central Pacific:

Rotuman, Wayan, Nadrogã, standard Fiji, Bauan, Nabukelevu, Boumaa, Tongan, Shumway, Niuafo’ou, Nieuan, Wallisian, Futunan, Pukapuka, Rennell-Bellona, Tikopia, Fagauvea, West Futunan, Ifira-Mele, Emae¸ Anuta, Samoan, Tokelauan, Tuvaluan, Nukuoro, Kapingamarangi, Nukuria, Takuu, Nukumanu, Luangiua¸ Sikaiana, Pileni, Rapanui, Hawaiian, Marquesan, Mangarevan, Tahitian, Pa’umotu, Austral (Rapa, Rurutu, Tupuai, Ra’ivavae, Rimatara), Penrhyn, Rarotongan, Māori.

Micronesia:

Nauruan, Kosraean, Kiribati, Marshallese, Pohnpeian, Mokilese, Pingelap, Ngatikese, Mortlockese, Puluwatese, Carolinian, Woleaian, Ulithian, Sonsorol-Tobi.

Notes on the classification

The inner classification of some of these groups faces uncertainty. And the classification of the Formosan languages is unsettled.

• The position of Arta among the languages of the Philippines is uncertain.

• The classification of Chamorro and Paluan within the Austronesian language family is accepted although there is no consensus on their exact position. They belong to the Western Malayo-Polyesian family.

• The languages of north-west Sumatra and the Nias languages are particularly difficult to classify at this point.

• The languages belonging to the Lower Mamberano group are probably not Austronesian, but they could be non-Austronesian Papuan languages.

Sources

John Lynch, Malcolm Ross, and Terry Crowley: The Oceanic Languages. Richmond: Curzon Press, (2002).

K. Alexander Adelaar and Nikolaus Himmelmann, The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar. Routledge, (2005).

Links

Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database

Académie des langues kanak website